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From: johnw@farside.eng.ready.com (John Wheeler)
Subject: Re: Ultimate metaphysical reality in Mahayana
Date: Sun, 30 Jun 91 16:59:06 GMT
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    WARNING: This post is exceedingly long and consists of almost all
             quoted material. If you find this offensive to your
             taste (and I can't see any reason why you wouldn't)
             press the delete key now. On the other hand if you
             are a die-hard subscriber to soc.religion.eastern, 
             determined to read on against all odds,... 

Some readers of the net (most notably Mr. Cha) have expressed a feeling
of incredulousness (?) whenever I have ventured to bring up the subject
of an Absolute Reality in the context of Buddhist philosophy. Just to
satisfy my own curiosity and interest in the matter, I did a little
investigative work and looked through some of the existing literature
to find some textual support for my position.

For anyone interested, I have summarized the results below. I believe they
substantiate the statements I made earlier. What follows are excerpts from
a book entitled "Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis," by David
J. Kalupahana, professor and chairman of the Department of Philosophy
at the University of Hawaii. 

Let me say that I am not implying Mr. Kalupahana shares the same view as me;
in fact, he ultimately rejects the whole of Mahayana Buddhism as being
inconsistent with original Buddhist philosophy. (But that is another can
of worms entirely!) However, his scholarship and acquaintance with
historical Buddhism seems reliable enough use as a source. 


Chapter 10: Development of the Mahayana

"In [the] initial stages of the development of the Mahayana, two doctrines
were evolving. The first was the doctrine of the plurality of Buddhas leading
to the conception of transcendental monism as represented by terms like tathata and dharmakaya. The second  is the doctrine of a `being aspiring to 
enlightenment' (bodhisattva)." (p. 118)

"According to the [Lotus Sutra], the aim of the Buddha's appearance in this 
world was to reveal the Buddha-knowledge. It is the nondual (advaya) knowledge,
free from discrimination (nirvikalpa). He who realizes it becomes one with the
realization. Buddha is the embodiment of that knowledge. It is the Buddha's
dharma-body (dharmakaya), the real body as opposed to the nirmanakaya, which 
is his apparitional or mind-made body. It is identical with the Ultimate
Reality (paramartha-satya), the `suchness' (tathata). It is inexpressable
and beyond logical analysis.

"This doctrine of dharma-kaya represents the apex of the movement toward
the development of absolutism which began immediately after the Buddha's
passing away. The whole of the [Diamond Sutra] is devoted to an analysis
of the phenomenal world in terms of this noumenal reality." (p. 122)

"The basic theme of the Prajnaparamita literature is to be found here.
On the one hand, there is the indescribable Ultimate Reality, on the
other, empty phenomenality. 

"In the Mula-madhyamaka-karika, Nargarjuna made an attempt to provide a
philosophical basis for the doctrines in the Prajnaparamitas. While in the
Prajnaparamitas we find an attempt to demonstrate the unreality of the
phenomenal from the standpoint of the noumenal, in the Mula-madhyamaka-
karika the dialectic is employed to prove the unreality of the phenomenal 
without making any reference to the noumenal. In the latter there is no 
discussion of the noumenal except once when Nagarjuna was compelled to refer 
to it in order to defend himself against the objections raised by the 
opponents of the theory of emptiness (sunyata). It is only in the Maha-prajna-
paramita-sastra that Nagarajuna discusses the conception of dharma-kaya." 
(p. 124)

Chapter 11: Madhymika Transcendentalism

"According to our analysis of Buddhist thought, the theory of an Absolute
reached its culimation in the Prajnaparamita literature. The origin of
dialectical consciousness which finally culminated in the full-fledged
Madhyamika dialectic,...was the conflict between noumenal reality and
phenomenality that is very vividly depicted in the Prajnaparamitas. The
two Buddhist schools Sarvastivada and Sautrantika,...contributed to the
emergence of the Madhyamika school when they presented metaphysical theories
in their attempts to explain the nature of the phenomenal world. The 
Mulamakhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna is devoted mostly to a refutation of the 
metaphysical theories of these two schools." (p. 129)

"[Nagarjuna's method] was the prasangika or reductio ad absurdum method.
As Murti [a contemporary scholar] has pointed out, `Prasanga is not to be
understood as an apagogic proof in which to prove an assertion indirectly
by disproving the opposite. Prasanga is disproof simply, without the least
intention to prove any thesis.'

"This is true as far as Nagarjuna's analysis of phenomenality is concerned.
But rejection of all theses pertaining to phenomenality was believed to
lead to the conception of the Absolute or Ultimate Reality (paramartha),
which the early Mahayanists considered indefinable (anirvacaniya)." (p. 131)

"The close relationship between Madhyamika thought and the teachings of the
Prajnaparamitas is undeniable." (p. 130)

"In a sense, the absolutism of the Prajnaparamitas became the Madhyamika
thesis. Nagarjuna is credited with having written the Mahaprajnapara-
mita-sastra before compiling the Mulamadhyamakakarika, the Madhyamika 
treatise par excellence, thus showing his indebtedness to the Prajnaparamita 
absolutism.

"Murti's views regarding the teachings of the Buddha and Nagarjuna may
be summarized thus: The Buddha as well as Nagarjuna accepted a
supersensous Ultimate Reality, an Absolute (paramartha) which is
inexpressable in terms of concepts." (p. 133)

"For Nagarjuna...a `concept' was something that conceals or covers the 
real nature of the object. Ultimate Reality (paramartha) comes to be concealed
by the `concept' (samvrti). It is revealed to the individual only on the 
development of the highest intuition. Thus, reality cannot be resolved into 
concepts; it is indescribable or indefinable. The noumenal or the `thing-
in-itself' (tattva) cannot be grasped by concepts. It transcends conceptual
description (nirvikalpa), is transcendent or self-existent (apara-pratyaya).
This is seen to justify Nagarjuna's view that there is no difference
whatsoever between the phenomenal (samsara) and the transcendental (nirvana),
for the reality of samsara or the world is identical with the Absolute."
(p. 135) 

"Nagarjuna, in the Mulamadhyakakarika, refers to the two levels of truth
and maintains that the Ultimate Reality (paramartha) cannot be communicated
without resorting to the conventional (samvrti), and that without understanding
the Ultimate Reality one cannot realize Nirvana." (p. 137)

"Madhyamikas considered all wordly reality (lokasamvrti) to be `conceptual'
(savikalpika), not empirical, and hance adopted the most effective method
of refuting all concepts, namely, the dialectical approach.

"By adopting the dialectical approach, the Madhyamikas were able to uphold
the sole reality of the Absolute, which they termed variously tathata,
dharmakaya, tathagata, tattva, and satya. Hence the realization of this
Ultimate Reality was presented as the goal of the religious life. The...
way to attain realization is by becoming a Buddha, a fully enlightened
one (samyak-sambuddha). It is the only path (marga). To become a Buddha,
one...adopts the life of a bodhisattva. By providing a philosophical basis
for the Mahayana ideal in this manner, Nagarjuna attained preeminence as
a Mahayana thinker." (p. 138)

Chapter 12: Yogacara Idealism

"The Madhyamikas contributed in great measure to the development of Yogacara
Idealism. Their ruthless analysis of concepts leading to the view that
these do not designate any reality or that they are empty of content or that
they do not reveal the nature of phenomena was welcomed by the Yogacarins.
Denying that the external object has any reality, the Yogacarins...
maintained...that the mind or consciousness is real. Since the Absolute
was looked upon as being nondual (advaya) and nonconceptual (nirvikalpa)
and as transcending wordly experience, the Yogacarins maintained that it
is realized...where there is undiscriminated consciousness without
subject-object dichotomy." (p. 143)

"The recognition of the transcendence of yogic intuition contributed
greatly to this view. From the standpoint of the highest yogic rapture,
wherein is to be found a form of undiscrimnated pure consciousness,
sense experience characterized by subject-object discrimination
appears illusory, in the some way that dream experience is found to
be illusory from the standpoint of waking consciousness. Hence
consciousness is the only reality." (p. 145)

"Enlightenment comes with the realization that everything is...consciousness
(cittamatram). Thus [Vasubandhu, in] the Trimsika, says:

	When consciousness is without an objective support, then
	consciouness is established in vijnaptimatra, since in the
	absence of anything to grasp, there in no grasping.

	When [he] is without thought, without objective support,
	his knowledge is supramundane. There is `turning away'
	from the object, through the abandonment of the two kinds
	weakness [i.e., the belief in a `self' and the belief in `real
	elements'].

	That is the realm without defiling tendencies (asrava),
	inconceivable, good, permanent, happy with released body;
	this is what is called the dharma of the great Sage.

"It is significant that vijnaptimatra or the ultimate undifferentiated
reality is equated with the dharma of the Buddha. The attainment of
this state...is Buddhahood. Thus, with the attainment of enlightenment,
a bodhisattva becomes `not merely *a* Buddha, but Buddha.' He becomes
one with Ultimate Reality." (p. 149)


Appendix 2: Reflections on the Relation between Early Buddhism and Zen

"Zen (Chinese, Ch'an) is generally described as a Chinese adaptaion of
Madhymika-Yogacara syncretism." (p. 163)

"Bodhidharma is credited with having founded the school of Zen [Ch'an]
Buddhism. Zen means dhyana, or meditation, and the famous stanza,...
attributed to Bodhidharma..., is taken as a statement of the essential
doctrines of Zen. It runs thus:

	A special tradition outside the Scriptures;
	No dependence upon words and letters;
 	Direct  pointing at the soul [Mind] of man;
	Seeing into one's nature and [attaining] Buddhahood.

"The special tradition referred to here is based on both Madhyamika and
Yogacara ideas. The Zen tradition seems to have gone beyond the Madhyamikas 
in rejecting completely the scriptural tradition, for the Madhyamikas,
while considering the concepts to be inadequate to represent reality, upheld 
the value of the `conventional' for an understanding of the `ultimate'. 
`Direct pointing at the [Mind] of man,' and `seeing into one's own nature,'
echo the Yogacara method." (p. 168)

"It is evident that the conception of an underlying reality, an Absolute,
indescribable and indefinable, is at the back of all Zen practice." (p. 172)

"Zen developed in the absolutist background of the Prajnaparamita literature."
(p. 176.)

"Although Mahayana emphasized the theory that Ultimate Reality is inexpress-
able in terms of empirical terminology, yet it embodied much scholasticism.
While remaining faithful to the Mahayana absolutism, the Zen masters
reacted against scholasticism and the recognized forms of conduct." (p. 176)

=============================================================================

Disciple: "When I travel, how can I carry your teaching with me?"

Master: "In your open hand." 

=============================================================================

P.S. This is my first and last "typing marathon." What I want to know
is: how does Mr. Yee do it? Does he run the Da Free John books through
an optical scanner? :-)